The Ude Makiwara: A Review of its History, Construction and Usage

By Randy Simpson

 

The makiwara is a familiar sight to most that practice “traditional karate” of some form or another. A simple plank tapered to provide springy feedback for striking techniques is relatively common in the karate world. It is an aspect of Okinawan karate culture that has survived quite well amidst the cultural transitions and subsequent transformations of the art over the last century. In fact, its ubiquity is interesting in an age wherein stylistic boundaries, commercialism and political bickering often redefine what “is” and “isn’t” karate in a seemingly arbitrary fashion. Politics aside, the need to hit things is a happy universal.

Although the makiwara itself has made it to present day practice, the existence and specific histories of several variant designs are not so well known among modern exponents. The language barrier itself is probably one of the most significant causes of this gap in information, as there may well be detailed references that are simply unavailable outside of Japanese, and thus unknown to English readers. From the available writings, we can see that the majority of the karate men writing in the early 20th century mention the makiwara and emphasize it as a necessity for correct development of karate striking techniques.1 Several works, such as Gichin Funakoshi’s Karate-do Kyohan, also include diagrams for reference and suggestions for usage. In at least one of these sources the standard makiwara shares mention with a round variety described variously as a pole or ude makiwara. However, compared to other information published on the makiwara in general, the reference is brief, which leads one to wonder at the reasons for the lack of equal mention. In this article, we will explore the background of this somewhat lesser known variety (based on the available source information), methods of construction for the modern training space, and some observations on its usage. For purposes of clarity, the standard variety will be referred to hereafter as a tachi makiwara, and the round as ude.

Motobu’s Notes
The only available “classical” work that mentions an ude makiwara and includes specifications for construction is Motobu Choki’s 1932 Watashi no Karate Jutsu. In the section “How to Make & Use a Makiwara”, Motobu mentions that there are two varieties, the sage (hanging) and tachi (standing).2 He notes here that the tachi is “usually referred to as ‘The Makiwara’” and was in common use among many people. Following some notes on the construction of the sage variety, he introduces “another kind of tachi makiwara that is not so popular but used for developing both arms.”  It’s referred to simply as a makiwara made from a round pole. He goes on to describe this version in some detail:

  …A round shaped pole 210 cm in length with a 9 cm diameter, with 75 cm buried firmly in the ground, leaving 135 cm above exposed ground …the top should be 3 cm thick with about 30 cm length wrapped with rope. This makiwara can be struck from the front and sides by either hand to develop power.

Sadly, no diagram of this design or any pictures of one being used are included. By the description given, we can envision the pole as tapering to a smaller diameter at its top to provide a springy target, but with equal give from all sides. Motobu points out that either hand may be used to strike this makiwara, which may at first seem entirely obvious, and something that one can do on the tachi as well. However, if interpreted to mean that it may be struck by either hand from any position, i.e. an elliptical forearm smash followed by a reverse punch, the statement makes more sense and hints at the practice of more dynamic exercises, which we’ll explore later. Given the diameter that is prescribed, it may also be likely that it was intended more for use as a tool for arm conditioning and forearm/hand/elbow strikes.

Seeing as how Motobu trained under an eclectic variety of teachers from the Shuri and Tomari areas (Anko Itosu, Sokon Matsumura, Kosaku Matsumora and Tokumine Shitsunen Pechin), the historical origin of these plans can only be speculated upon.3 He was probably introduced to this makiwara by one or more of the men he trained with, who in themselves constitute an impressive pedigree of teachers. Judging by the fact that he regarded it as important enough to include in a book, it is reasonable to assume that Motobu made use of it in his own training, and it is further possible that he passed knowledge of this makiwara on to his students, who may then have disseminated it to their own; this record seems to be lacking, though. However, based on his learning from several prominent teachers as well as his exposure to the Motobu family ti tradition (via his older brother, Choyu), it is highly probable that this ude makiwara has a significant history in pre-twentieth century training in one or more of the major centers of karate/ti practice and development. Motobu sensei’s enthusiasm for makiwara training can be attested to by contemporary descriptions of his hands.4

There is another 1930’s publication that mentions yet another variation on this variation. In kobudo preservationist Taira Shinken’s Encyclopedia of Okinawan Weapons, a makiwara specifically for training with the bo is shown in the Bojutsu section. The detailed illustration shows a solid round post with a crosspiece set horizontally through it near the top, and a hole bored through the center. Straw padding is wrapped around these “arms” and the top and lower surfaces of the makiwara.5 Taira notes that the makiwara should be of “average human height.” Although this version is for weapons training rather than empty hand, it does demonstrate the adaptability of the basic “striking post” concept. Functionally speaking, it is reminiscent of the pell, a medieval European weapons training post of Roman extraction.6

 
A Tale of Two Miyagis
Despite the general scarcity of information in historical writings, there are two modern sources that reference the ude makiwara and provide diagrams. The first, Traditional Karatedo Okinawa Goju Ryu Vol. 1 by Morio Higaonna, contains illustrations of several different types of makiwara, all of which are less common variations on the theme.

The round design pictured is comprised of a post of unspecified dimensions, with two intersecting cuts made into it lengthwise from the top. These cuts create four sections that serve as striking surfaces in lieu of a single tapered board. Rope is shown wrapped around the upper portion as a striking surface. The result is a makiwara that can be hit from all sides with presumably equal amounts of give.

No instructions for construction or usage accompany the diagram. Nor can any specific conclusions about its history be assumed. However, Higaonna trained under An’ichi Miyagi, a top student of Goju-Ryu founder Chojun Miyagi. According to a recent interview, An’ichi was Higaonna’s sole teacher, and An’ichi himself had been Chojun Miyagi’s only student at times.7 This suggests that the ude makiwara shown is an artifact of Goju karate training as taught and propagated by Miyagi, although the possibility that the design came from another source certainly does exist.

 

Notes From Matsumura Shorin Ryu
Another variation on the ude design appears in Bishop’s Okinawan Karate.8 This information comes from an interview with Seiki Arakaki, a late student of the late Hohan Soken. When discussing makiwara training, Arakaki states:

There were, and still are, basically two types of makiwara, the flat board and the round post. The flat one is used for practicing the straight corkscrew punch and the round one, which has one or two splits to halfway down the middle, is used for training the fist, elbow and the side of the hand.

As for the makiwara itself, a clear drawing with measurements for the height of the post is included but no information for the diameter. The diagram indicates a 200cm long post that has been cut lengthwise four times as opposed to twice, resulting in eight flexible sections instead of four. The top of the post is also shown wrapped with rice straw rope.

Compared to the relative silence in the literature, this reference is a wealth of knowledge. Its tempting to attempt to trace this makiwara back to Soken’s days, but Arakaki had more than one teacher. As well as training with Soken in Matsumura Orthodox Shorin Ryu from the 1950’s on, Arakaki had also trained in Goju-Ryu under Seiko Higa, who in turn was a student of Kanryo Higaonna (and later, C. Miyagi). Arakaki’s Goju background brings into play the possibility that the ude makiwara shown is a product of K. Higaonna’s training in Fuzhou, where as a young man he studied the Chinese boxing that was to become Goju- Ryu. 

According to Kerr's work Okinawa: The History of an Island People, in the days of the second Sho dynasty “residence at Tomari suggested scholarship and association with the Chinese living there.” As a royal bodyguard and officer at the end of this period, Matsumura himself would have been privy to knowledge gained from exchange trips to China and resident Chinese envoys. But cultural diffusion seldom takes one path- Kerr continues,  “The Naha man was presumed to be less conservative, to be more knowledgeable in the latest songs and dances, the newest patterns and styles of dress, the latest slang.” And the Naha community was likely exposed to a wide spectrum of fighting- the ports there were backdrop to a shifting mixture of sailors from China, Japan, Korea, Siam, Java, the Pacific islands and continental Southeast Asia.

Arakaki might well have come by this makiwara via his training under either teacher- but it may be that he knew it from an unrelated source, or that it was simply common knowledge via one or both routes of cultural exchange with China (or elsewhere). If that is the case, the ude makiwara shown should have equivalent cousins in Chinese boxing systems that may well still be in use, or referenced in older reference publications and manuals. While it does not provide us with a definitive history, this information does suggest that one or both of the Matsumura Shorin and Naha/Goju traditions practiced (and practice still) with this design, and that it may have come to Okinawa as a result of official or informal exchange with China.9

Without notes on the specific origins of any of the three versions, its difficult to place these designs in context with karate historical timeline, or to compare the development of differences between the three. However, given the reference in Motobu’s book, inclusion in Morio Higaonna’s work and the dual possible origins presented in Bishop’s, it is safe to assume that the ude makiwara was at one point a relatively common piece of equipment in the generalized Shuri, Naha and Tomari karate circles that has been overshadowed in propagation and modern use by its flatter relative.

 

Exploratory Project
To make one of these makiwara for some hands-on investigation I used the diagram provided in Higaonna’s book as a model, and that is the design that I will describe here, installed outdoors. I have taken a few liberties as far as materials and measurements go, and have attempted to err on the side of caution when deciding upon diameter and the length of the cuts needed.

Depending on location, a suitably sized round treated post might be easy or difficult to come by. It needs to be 8’ long and between 4” and 6” in diameter. You may be able to find one at your local lumberyard. If that provides no results, call around: rural farm communities and farm supply co-ops may be sources.

If this search is fruitless, there are naturally available alternatives that have the added bonus of involving you more in the process of making your training equipment.

Black locust is a quick growing hardwood that has strong natural rot resistant properties. In fact, locust posts are known to remain solid up to 70 years in direct contact with ground. Cedar is also naturally resistant to rot and bugs and will hold up for quite a while as well, but locust has superior strength (it’s nearly twice as hard) and it’s extremely dense wood. The bottom line is that you should be able to hurl all types of abuse at it with no problems, and it will last in the elements for a very long time. Extra steps, such as hauling and debarking, make this option a bit more labor intensive. Naturally, I decided to use a tree cut from my property. (Fig. A and Fig. B)

                                  

                                                                Fig. A                                                                                                 Fig. B

The post should be as uniform in diameter as possible; irregularities in the circumference will be magnified once padding is applied. If there are little knobs or angles where branches were cut, smooth them out with a drawshave or sure form. Secondly, make sure that the log is sound and doesn’t have fractures in it from past damage, which could weaken the potential striking areas. A seasoned (well cured/dry) piece is preferable to a green one. Carrying the 8’ log home makes for nice Sanchin training. 

The next part is slightly more involved, regardless of materials used. In order for the post to be able to give from all side, two cuts must be made down the log lengthwise, making an X shape when viewed from above (Fig. C). This results in four flexible slats each with a resistance similar to a typical makiwara. The first one I made consists of a 5” diameter log with cuts running halfway down to ground level, or about 30 inches. I used a chain saw to make the cuts once the post was firmly rooted in the ground, but found in later experimentation that laying the log horizontally at waist height makes for more accurate cutting-- it’s also safer. A sure hand or a mill attachment may make this an option for those experienced with chain saw use and the requisite safety precautions. I recommend that a table saw with a guide be used for accuracy in at least starting the cuts, or using the services of the lumber deptartment at a building supply store. Keep in mind that there needs to be enough space between the slats to allow for them to travel and recoil when struck, so at least ¼ inch of wood needs to be removed from the cut, which a chainsaw will provide in one pass. The slats will also splay outward slightly as the cuts lengthen.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Fig. C

 

Once your cuts are made, the slats must be tested for safe resistance. As in a tachi makiwara the wood should give under moderate static pressure. To test this, stand in a frontward stance and extend a reverse punch, placing the knuckles firmly against an individual slat. Pick up the front leg and lean in to the post: the slat should flex inward under this pressure, but not collapse completely. Repeat all around. If there is too little flexibility, i.e., the slat does not move at all, increase the depth of the cut. Or, following some variant makiwara shown in Higaonna’s book, a piece of durable rubber placed in between the slats near the bottom of the cut may resolve the problem by splaying them outward a little bit more. An industrial rubber bushing or piece of an old bumper is a good candidate for this.

Securing this makiwara in the ground is a similar process to installing a regular one, but there are a few additional considerations. It will be hit from all sides, meaning that bracing has to be attached to accommodate force coming from all directions as opposed to just one. This can be achieved using 4” screws to attach lengths of treated 2x4 lumber to the post. Four of these braces should be at least a foot and a half long, and two of them a foot long. Attach two of the long boards horizontally at the bottom of the post, directly opposite from each other. A foot and a half above these, attach two more long pieces opposite each other. On the two “sides” remaining, attach the foot long boards about halfway in between the longer pairs, opposite from each other. This should provide enough bracing all around to prevent the post from eventually being uprooted under repeated onslaught.

Dig a rectangular hole two and a half feet deep and wide enough to allow the bracing to fit securely against the solid soil walls on all sides. This will end up being more rectangular than circular. A shovel full of gravel at the bottom will provide drainage as water seeps into the ground around the makiwara’s bottom end.

Place the post into the hole, making sure that the bracing is somewhat close to the walls. If it does not sit level, add some more gravel until it stays upright. Placing several fist-sized rocks tightly around the bottom once the post is in place helps to keep it securely anchored. The soil must be packed tightly back around the post and bracing, and this can be achieved by shoveling in a few scoops and then using a tamping bar (a 2x4 end will also work just fine) to tamp it down. Add some more soil and repeat, adding one layer at a time and packing it. This will result in a much tighter overall fit than simply shoveling it all back in at once.

Concrete may seem like the more logical (and quicker) choice, but the 60-80 lbs required for such a job would add a considerable counterweight to the overall resistance of the makiwara. The resistance of a post set in unyielding concrete would most likely negate the recoil of the slats and produce effects detrimental to the user.

Initially, I tied the top ten inches of the post with cord per the various diagrams’ instructions. Tying it tightly only forced the slats together, eliminating resistance. After a few experimental whacks, I removed the cord entirely and found flexibility to be more satisfactory. It seems that the rope straw used in the example versions is there to provide an impact surface, which is not necessary if using modern materials. For padding, I initially used several yards of ¼” closed cell foam sheets, wrapped in alternating layers down the length of the slats and bound with heavy duty duct tape. However, after two weeks of consistent use, I found that uppercuts and hook punches thrown with full body rotation (more on this later) tend to tear the tape and foam underneath, a jarring experience. In light of this result, I recommend using heavier foam rubber. The ever popular “pool noodles” that appear in stores every summer are also good materials. They are made from nice spongy foam that is more or less indestructible for our purposes. Cutting the noodle in half lengthwise and into slat-sized sections gives you enough padding to adequately cover the striking surfaces. My current version consists of several feet of a ½” thick camping ground mat wrapped around the top of the makiwara, a big improvement over the thinner foam, and there are no seams to bust open (Fig. D)

                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Fig. D

Extra heavy-duty duct tape wrapped around the entire striking area will hold up quite well and cover any seams. 10  Forthe more enterprising, a covering of leather, canvas or some other durable cloth can be made. If the makiwara is installed outside, placing a coffee can or bucket over the top in between uses keeps the weather from deterioration of the covering.                                                                                                                                

                                                                                                                        

Stick and Move
Now that the whole thing is firmly in the ground and well padded, what exactly can one do with it? (Fig. E) For starters, try out a straight reverse punch. As with all makiwara practice, take it slow at first. If tenderness begins to develop around the proximal phalanges, in the carpal or metacarpal areas when making a fist, know that your alignment is off and you are hitting too hard. Take a few days or weeks off from hitting anything until the discomfort subsides, and begin lightly when resuming training on this makiwara. Since the shape of the ude makiwara is rounded as opposed to flat, these sorts of injuries are very easy to rush into. Even a solid makiwara-conditioned wrist will have a tendency to hyperextend as it deals with the circumference of the impact area. If you prefer to use a tate or vertical punch this might feel stronger than the standard choku zuki.

One feature that will become immediately apparent is the satisfying clacking sound that the slats make when a solid blow is landed. The sharpness of this sound will vary with the intensity of the strikes. While producing a loud sound is not the point of the training, it is a good auditory confirmation that a technique has a certain amount of force behind it. Over-focused, tentative or rigidly thrown strikes will not produce the same results. Experiment with light strikes from different ranges and vectors of movement, noting hand, wrist, elbow and shoulder alignment. After several sessions of moderated acclimation, the fun can begin.

The main advantage of the round design is the expanded striking area afforded by its shape. Combinations of punches can be thrown to the sides of the post while facing it straight on, such as jab/hook/elbow. As another example, a roundhouse    kick can be followed by an elbow smash without having to readjust the body. Performing a switchback with the feet allows you to repeat strikes and combinations with both sides of the body in alternation.  Coping with striking from different angles will highlight a poorly centered punch by simply grazing off of the post’s circumference. Again, if discomfort develops anywhere in the punching arm, a misalignment of the impact surfaces or supporting joints is indicated.

This feedback, if heeded, provides a valuable insight into the technique being practiced. Since karate techniques will be applied bare-knuckled in the context of a violent encounter, it is imperative that practitioners have an awareness of exactly which knuckles are making contact at the termination of punches, especially rounded ones. Throwing a hooking punch changes the alignment of the standard “karate” straight punch and often places the unsupported metacarpal bones of the ring and little finger in line to absorb the impact, which can have very unpleasant results.11 This is easy to miss when hitting a bag (very firm ones being an exception), which will deform enough to accommodate the fist wherever it lands. A blow that may well damage the hand on a more rigid target will still feel powerful without any negative feedback aside from a scraped knuckle. But considering that the human face is made up of rather bony structures, a refined awareness of knuckle alignments on all punching trajectories is an imperative skill to develop.

Striking the makiwara from different angles can also highlight any weakness in the muscular contraction around the shoulder joint, and throughout the body, during the delivery of rounded and hooking punches. A hooking punch that is not ‘connected’ to the body center will produce a feeling of separation in the shoulder joint as the body follows through and the arm stays behind, absorbing most of the impact. This particular problem is again not as evident against a bag, where the punch will still move the target regardless of anatomical efficiency (or lack thereof).  If the shoulder is driven upwards upon impact more contraction is needed to stabilize this area. Likewise if the shoulder is raised in anticipation of this rebound, the punch will feel as though it bounces lightly off the makiwara, regardless of body follow through. Extending the arm into a wider hook will concentrate this feedback at the elbow and indicate where a weakness has developed there. Fully committed body rotation behind a punching arm strongly integrated (via contraction of the shoulder/lat) to the body will provide a blow that transfers power smoothly from the drive of the legs to the target without losing some in the displaced shoulder joint. The makiwara can inform bag work as an adjunct for ‘fine-tuning’ and naturalizing properly supported form.

Since the ude makiwara may be struck from all angles the practitioner is not limited to one general direction of movement. “Walking the circle” drills can be utilized, allowing the user to move around the target, letting the techniques be trained in a free-moving manner, also good for reinforcing an awareness of the ever-changing centerline. The same mobility can be experienced with a hanging or standing bag, although the ude makiwara offers feedback and rotational conditioning that are lacking in bags.

In the absence of training partners, arm conditioning (kotekitai) may be pursued on the ude makiwara. Inward and outward blocks/strikes can be thrown in succession without constant readjustment, also motivating hip rotation. There are no angles to be avoided, and the round shape provides a surface that is similar to the curves of an arm or leg. As such, the impact feels a bit more concentrated than with a flat surface. A word of caution: take care that the elbow joints are not locked, but no more than ¾ of the way extended to provide some protection to the joint upon impact. Hitting this target with the arms locked will damage the joint as intensity is increased; pay attention to stiffness and pain between uses, a sensation not unlike tennis elbow. Avoid slamming the distal edges of the forearm into the post, as the ulnar and radial nerves/arteries run along the respective bones. Forearm smashes should likewise be inclined towards the posterior surface to avoid compressing these pathways. Since the arms can be used in alternation, everything may be done while moving around the makiwara to add variety to training and incorporate footwork.

Virtually all of the strikes in the karate vocabulary may be practiced on this makiwara in conjunction with free moving footwork:

-Straight corkscrewing punches

-Tate/Standing fist punches

-Reverse punch

-Jab/Cross

-Hooking punches

-Uppercuts

-Backfist smashes

-Hammer fist strikes

-Shuto

-Haito

-Palm heel strikes

-Open handed smashes                                                                                                                                

-Koken

-Forearm smashes (inside/outside)

-Elliptical elbow strikes                                                                                                                                 

-Dropping/rising elbow strikes                                                                                                                                                             Fig. E

-Front kicks

-Roundhouse kicks (especially applied with the shin)

-Side thrust kicks

-Hooking kicks

-Elliptical knee strikes

-Mawashi uke

-Soto uke, in/out

-Shoulder smashes

-Body checks

-Leg hooks/sweeps

-Any combination of the above, from all angles and lines of movement  

These individual techniques can be worked into more dynamic drills as well with the makiwara serving as a proxy for another person. All of these techniques can be worked on both arms in succession, or with a combination of other techniques. Forearm smashes and elbows thrown with alternating arms provides good motivation for hip rotation behind the techniques, distancing for close-in fighting and a general workout. Shifting off the center from a designated ‘front’ while utilizing rolling hands or two handed parrying into counter strikes provides nice training for shifting off an attack and counterattacking along an opponent’s weak angle. Sanchin style takedowns can be conditioned by shifting around the makiwara and entering with a close strike followed by hooking the leg around the post as the upper body drives into it.

In closing, I would hope that the information presented in this article lives up to the final comments in Funakoshi’s makiwara appendix in Karate-do Kyohan:  “The makiwara is suggested simply because it can be made cheaply and easily; thus anything can be made with some ingenuity, without too much cost, and with readily available materials will be suitable.”

 
Footnotes:

1. A selection of makiwara references in early 20th century materials:

A. Anko Itosu. “Ten Lessons of Itosu”, 1908

“4.One of the most important issues within Toudi is the training of the hands and feet. Therefore, one must always use the makiwara in order to develop them thoroughly. To do this effectively, lower the shoulders, open the lungs and focus your energy. Grip the ground firmly in order to root your posture, and sink your ki- commonly referred to as one’s life force of intrinsic force- into your tanden (just below the navel). Following this procedure, perform 100-200 tsuki (thrusts) each day with each hand.”

B. Kyan Chotoku, “Karate Training and What to Know About Fighting”

In this outline published in 1930, Kyan mentions makiwara training in the section “What to Know About Training”:

“8. Makiwara practice is essential in order to develop powerful tools of impact….”

C. Gichin Funakoshi, Karate-do Kyohan

Appendix, p. 251 “How to Make a Makiwara”

“In Karate-do, the makiwara is used mainly to develop the fists and feet. It is important to constantly develop the fists and feet through the use of the makiwara at the same time one is polishing the techniques by practicing the kata and matching (kumite).”

2. p. 84, Watashi no Karate Jutsu, McCarthy

3. p.16, 34, 62, McCarthy

4. From the 1925 King Magazine article, “A Heated Bout Between Two Powerhouses”:           He (the judoka) also asked Motobu if he could examine his hands…With callused   skin, his fists were virtually the shape of a turtle shell and hard as a rock,    too…people who study Ryukyu karate train with a makiwara…Motobu strikes the        makiwara daily with his right hand in an effort to develop and maintain his      striking ability.” (p. 42, McCarthy)

5. p. 20, Taira 

6. For a good discussion on the pelland its history:                                                                   

http://www.thearma.org/essays/pells.htm (accessed 1/20/08)

7. Dragon Times no. 10. “Interview of Morio Higaonna.”:

Higaonna: ...His (An'ichi sensei) formative years, from 1948 until 1953 were spent in intense personal training with Chojun sensei on a daily basis, at times he was the Founder's only student…

8. p. 61 (2nd edition)

9. In a 1978 interview with Ernie Estrada, Hohan Soken had this to say about his training in Matsumura Shorin Ryu:

We would train twice a day. Early in the morning we would train on striking objects and conditioning to prepare one for the day. After working hard in the fields, we would have nightly training in two person techniques and conditioning like present-day kotekitai (an Okinawan form of body and arm conditioning). We had to toughen our legs and hands - like iron, then they became true weapons…

While he does not specifically mention the type of makiwara discussed in this article, it does establish the tool’s overall importance in his line of karate training.

10. Gorilla brand makes a very heavy and thick black version of butyl duct tape that holds up quite well outdoors and maintains adhesion under frequent pummeling and moisture without peeling like normal tape.

11. Known as a Boxer’s Fracture, generally of the 4th and 5th metacarpals, but the 1st may be included as well. A poorly targeted punch can result in limitation or disablement of an anatomical weapon. Efficiently aligned punches are not an aesthetic matter: the ability to repeatedly use the bare fist with maximum effect is vital in self-defense training, an aim which broken bones impede.

 

References:

Bishop, Mark. Okinawan Karate- Styles, Teachers and Secret Techniques, Boston: Charles E. Tuttle Co. Inc., 1999

Cook, Harry. Shotokan Karate: A Precise History (1st Edition), England: Cook, 2001.

Funakoshi, Gichin. Karate-do Kyohan. Tr. By Ohshima, Tsutomu Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd., 1973

Estrada, Ernie. Interview With Hohan Soken: The Last Of The Great Old Time Karate Warriors – Part 1. Fighting Arts.com. Accessed 1/1/08. 

                        http://fightingarts.com/reading/article.php?id=426. 

Higaonna, Morio. Traditional Karatedo Okinawa Goju Ryu Vol. 1, Tokyo: Kodansha International/USA through Harper & Row, 1985.

Kerr, George. Okinawa: The History of an Island People, Revised Edition, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co. Inc., 2000

Motobu, Choki. Watashi no Karate Jutsu (My Art of Karate-jutsu), Tr. By Patrick and Yuriko McCarthy, Australia: International Ryukyu Karate Research Group, 2002.

Shinken, Taira. Encyclopedia of Okinawan Weapons. Tr. By Eihachi Ota, Canada: Masters Publication, 2000.

Interview of Morio Higaonna. Dragon-Tsunami.org.
Accessed 1/1/08.    http://www.dragon-tsunami.org/Dtimes/Pages/article21.htm.

 

Figure captions:

A- A seasoned 8’ locust log.

B- The log after debarking, smoothing and shaping with a drawshave.

C- A view of the cuts from the top of the log- each slat should be roughly the same size.

D- The first cut results in two 30” long slats. Note the space between them- plenty of room to travel.

E- A view from the top of the finished makiwara. The slats should have an even amount of space between them; wrapping padding on too tightly can compress them. Heavy rains may also swell the slats; wait for them to dry before use.

F- The final product, installed, padded and ready to use.